Department of Physiology

Curriculum for MSc Students

1st Semester

Subjects		Code	Hours/week		Credits
			Theory	Practical
1	Biostatistics	COMSta-M1			2
2	English Language	ENGEng-M1	1	-	1
3	General Physiology (I)	PHYGen-M1	3	-	3
4	Immunohistochemistry	MICIhi-M1	1	3	2
5	Physiology Lab (I)	PHYLab-M1	-	3	1
6	Selected topics	PHYSto-M1	3	-	3
7	Seminar	PHYSem-M1	1	-	1
Total					12

2nd Semester

Subjects		Code	Hours/week		Credits
			Theory	Practical
1	General Physiology (II)	PHYGen-M2	3	-	3
2	Neuroanatomy	PHYNan-M2
3	Physiology Lab. (II)	PHYLab-M2			1
4	Research methodology	COMRme-M2	1	-	1
5	Selected topics	PHYSto-M2	3	-	3
6	Seminar	PHYSem-M2	1	-	1
Total

PhD in Physiology

1st Semester

Subjects		Code	Hours/week		Credits
			Theory	Practical
1	English language	ENGEng-P1	1	-	1
2	General Pathophysiology	PHYPph-P1	3	-	3
3	General physiology (I)	PHYGen-P1	3	-	3
4	Immunehistochemistry	MICIhi-P1			1
5	Selected topics (I)	PHYSto-P1	3	-	3
6	Seminar	PHYSem-P1	1	-	1
Total					12

 

2nd Semester

Subjects		Code	Hours/week		Credits
			Theory	Practical
1	General physiology (II)	PHYGen-P2	3	-	3
2	Physiology Lab.	PHYLab-P2	-	3	1
3	Selected topics (II)	PHYSto-P2	3	-	3
4	Seminar	PHYSem-P2	1	-	1
5	Systemic Pathophysiology	PHYPph-P2	3	-	3
Total

General Physiology for MSc Candidates
(PHYGen-M1)

1st Semester (3 credits)
45 hours theory (3 hours/week)
I. Cell: (1 hour):

• Plasma membrane, cytoplasm and its organelles.
• Nucleusandgene expression.
• DNA synthesis and cell division.

II. Body fluids: (1 hour)

• Fluid compartment
• Water and electrolyte balance.
• Edema.

III. Muscle, nerve and autonomic nervous system: (12 hours)

• Generation of membrane potential of nerve cell.
• Excitation and conduction.
• Nerve action potential.
• Electrogenesis of the action potential.
• Orthodromic and antidromic conduction - properties of mixed nerves.
• Skeletal muscles
• The contractile response - muscle twitch.
• Properties of skeletal muscles in the intact organism - motor units.
• Energy source and metabolism.
• Strength-duration curve - cardiac muscle.
• The smooth muscles.
• The neuromuscular junction.
• Autonomic nervous system, anatomical consideration - sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
• Types of autonomic innervation and reflex arc.
• Higher autonomic centers and neurotransmitters in autonomic nervous systems.
• Physiology of micturition.

IV. Blood: (6 hours)

• Blood volume and plasma.
• Red blood cells.
• Hemoglobin structure and types.
• Anemia.
• Blood groups (ABO system) and transfusion reaction.
• Homeostasis and platelets.
• External and internal pathways of coagulation.
• Tests of homeostasis, hemophilia.
• Immunity and tissue typing.
• Tolerance, autoimmune diseases, and graft rejection.

V. Respiratory system: (9 hours)

• Physiological functions of the lungs
• Process of respiration: mechanics of breathing.
• Lung volumes and capacities.
• Compliance of the lung, role of surfactant.
• Pulmonary and alveolar ventilation.
• Transport of O2 by the blood.
• Transport of CO2 by the blood.
• Role of the respiratory system in acid- base regulation.
• Regulation of breathing: voluntary and involuntary control.
• Regulation of breathing: ventilatory responses to CO2 rise and O2 lack.

VI. Cardiovascular system: (18 hours)

• Functional design of cardiovascular structure of the heart and blood vessels.
• Properties of cardiac muscle-autorhythmicity and conductivity.
• Properties of cardiac muscle-contractility & refractory characteristics.
• Electrophysiology of the heart (ECG).
• Mechanical events in cardiac cycle.
• Heart sounds and murmurs.
• Cardiac output.
• Work and efficiency of the heart.
• Vascular system-condition of flow & pressure.
• Blood pressure and its regulation
• Circulatory regulation, general nervous & local peripheral mechanisms.
• Circulation through special regions; coronary, skeletal muscle, cerebral and skin circulation.
• Cardiovascular haemostasis, cardiac insufficiency, shock, and postural changes.
• Starling forces across capillary beds.
• Venous pressure and flow.

General Physiology for MSc Candidates
(PHYGen-M2)

2nd Semester (3 credits)

• 45 hours theory (3 hours/week)

I. Renal system: (8 hours)

• Renal circulation and glomerular filtration.
• Tubular reabsorption.
• Tubular secretion.
• Water excretion by the kidneys.
• Role of the kidney in electrolytes balance.
• Renal mechanisms of acidification of urine and its significance in the regulation of pH.
• Regulation of body fluid volume.
• Renal disease and diuresis.
• Renal function test.

II. Central nervous system: (10 hours)

• General sensation.
• Tactile vibration ad position.
• Pain sensation.
• Spinal cord pathway and reflexes.
• Spinal cord transaction.
• Thalamus central representation of sensation
• Reticular activating system.
• Sleep and electroencephalography.
• Motor cortex and motor pathway.
• Basal ganglia.
• Cerebellum.
• Language learning and memory.
• Cerebrospinal fluid.
• Limbic system.

III. Special senses: (5 hours)

• Visual sensation.
• Hearing sensation.
• Vestibular Function.
• Taste.
• Smell.

IV. Gastrointestinal system: (6 hours)

• Gastrointestinal anatomy and general principles of its physiology.
• Saliva and swallowing
• Stomach motility and secretion.
• Small intestine motility
• Small intestine secretion.
• Large intestine motility and secretion.
• Pancreas.
• Liver.

V. Endocrine and Reproductive system (16 hours)

• Hypothalamic hormones.
• Posterior pituitary gland hormones.
• Anterior Pituitary gland hormones.
• Growth hormone.
• Thyroid gland hormones.
• Hypo and hyperthyroidism.
• Ca2+ metabolism, vitamin D.
• Ca2+ metabolism, Parathyroid hormone.
• Pancreatic hormones (insulin) & (Glucagon)
• Diabetes Mellitus.
• Metabolic syndrome.
• Hypoglycemia.
• Adrenal gland:  Anatomy and physiology.
• Mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids.
• Catecholamines.
• Male reproductive  system
• Female reproductive  system
• Physiology of pregnancy

VI. Immunohistochemistry Course
Credit: 2 units= 3 Hr Practical Sessions
Objectives: This course is designed to learn the technique of Immunohistochemistry for postgraduate students, helping them to understand the method and to design their project with ability to detect antigens and/or proteins in cellular or tissue level.

• Introduction.
• Innate immunity and adaptive immunity.
• Types of Antibodies.
• Laboratory preparations.
• Serology.
• Ligand Immunoassay.
• ELISA.
• ImmunoBlot.
• Introduction to IHC.
• Immunocytochemistry.
• Sampling of Tissue for IHC and fixation.
• Deparafinization and Antigen Retrieving
• Rehydration and staining
• Interpretation of results.

General Physiology for PhD Candidates
(PHYGen-P1)

1st Semester (3 credits)
45 hours theory (3 hours/week)
I. Cell: (1 hour):

• Plasma membrane, cytoplasm and its organelles.
• Nucleusandgene expression.
• DNA synthesis and cell division.

II. Body fluids: (1 hour)

• Fluid compartment
• Water and electrolyte balance.
• Edema.

III. Muscle, nerve and autonomic nervous system: (12 hours)

• Generation of membrane potential of nerve cell.
• Excitation and conduction.
• Nerve action potential.
• Electrogenesis of the action potential.
• Orthodromic and antidromic conduction - properties of mixed nerves.
• Skeletal muscles
• The contractile response - muscle twitch.
• Properties of skeletal muscles in the intact organism - motor units.
• Energy source and metabolism.
• Strength-duration curve - cardiac muscle.
• The smooth muscles.
• The neuromuscular junction.
• Autonomic nervous system, anatomical consideration - sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
• Types of autonomic innervation and reflex arc.
• Higher autonomic centers and neurotransmitters in autonomic nervous systems.
• Physiology of micturition.

IV. Blood: (6 hours)

• Blood volume and plasma.
• Red blood cells.
• Hemoglobin structure and types.
• Anemia.
• Blood groups (ABO system) and transfusion reaction.
• Homeostasis and platelets.
• External and internal pathways of coagulation.
• Tests of homeostasis, hemophilia.
• Immunity and tissue typing.
• Tolerance, autoimmune diseases, and graft rejection.

V. Respiratory system: (9 hours)

• Physiological functions of the lungs
• Process of respiration: mechanics of breathing.
• Lung volumes and capacities.
• Compliance of the lung, role of surfactant.
• Pulmonary and alveolar ventilation.
• Transport of O2 by the blood.
• Transport of CO2 by the blood.
• Role of the respiratory system in acid- base regulation.
• Regulation of breathing: voluntary and involuntary control.
• Regulation of breathing: ventilatory responses to CO2 rise and O2 lack.

VI. Cardiovascular system: (18 hours)

• Functional design of cardiovascular structure of the heart and blood vessels.
• Properties of cardiac muscle-autorhythmicity and conductivity.
• Properties of cardiac muscle-contractility & refractory characteristics.
• Electrophysiology of the heart (ECG).
• Mechanical events in cardiac cycle.
• Heart sounds and murmurs.
• Cardiac output.
• Work and efficiency of the heart.
• Vascular system-condition of flow & pressure.
• Blood pressure and its regulation
• Circulatory regulation, general nervous & local peripheral mechanisms.
• Circulation through special regions; coronary, skeletal muscle, cerebral and skin circulation.
• Cardiovascular haemostasis, cardiac insufficiency, shock, and postural changes.
• Starling forces across capillary beds.
• Venous pressure and flow.

General Physiology for PhD Candidates
(PHYGen-P2)

2nd Semester (3 credits)

• 45 hours theory (3 hours/week)

I. Renal system: (8 hours)

• Renal circulation and glomerular filtration.
• Tubular reabsorption.
• Tubular secretion.
• Water excretion by the kidneys.
• Role of the kidney in electrolytes balance.
• Renal mechanisms of acidification of urine and its significance in the regulation of pH.
• Regulation of body fluid volume.
• Renal disease and diuresis.
• Renal function test.

II. Central nervous system: (10 hours)

• General sensation.
• Tactile vibration ad position.
• Pain sensation.
• Spinal cord pathway and reflexes.
• Spinal cord transaction.
• Thalamus central representation of sensation
• Reticular activating system.
• Sleep and electroencephalography.
• Motor cortex and motor pathway.
• Basal ganglia.
• Cerebellum.
• Language learning and memory.
• Cerebrospinal fluid.
• Limbic system.

III. Special senses: (5 hours)

• Visual sensation.
• Hearing sensation.
• Vestibular Function.
• Taste.
• Smell.

IV. Gastrointestinal system: (6 hours)

• Gastrointestinal anatomy and general principles of its physiology.
• Saliva and swallowing
• Stomach motility and secretion.
• Small intestine motility
• Small intestine secretion.
• Large intestine motility and secretion.
• Pancreas.
• Liver.

V. Endocrine and Reproductive system (16 hours)

• Hypothalamic hormones.
• Posterior pituitary gland hormones.
• Anterior Pituitary gland hormones.
• Growth hormone.
• Thyroid gland hormones.
• Hypo and hyperthyroidism.
• Ca2+ metabolism, vitamin D.
• Ca2+ metabolism, Parathyroid hormone.
• Pancreatic hormones (insulin) & (Glucagon)
• Diabetes Mellitus.
• Metabolic syndrome.
• Hypoglycemia.
• Adrenal gland:  Anatomy and physiology.
• Mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids.
• Catecholamines.
• Male reproductive  system
• Female reproductive  system
• Physiology of pregnancy

 

Selected Topics in Physiology for MSc Candidates

(PHYSto-M1) 1st Semester

3hours/week (3 credits)

1. Physiology of Stress

1. Definition of stress
2. Effects associated with stress response
3. The general adaptation syndrome
4. Physical responses to stressors (Fight or Flight)
5. Emotional and behavioral responses
6. Management of stress

2. Apoptosis

1. General principles about programmed cell death
2. Mechanism of apoptosis at molecular level
3. cysteine proteases
4. DNA fragmentation, cytoplasmic and chromatin condensation

3. Coronary circulation and Coronary Heart Disease

1. Anatomic Considerations
2. Pressure Gradients & Flow in the Coronary Vessels
3. atherosclerotic plaque
4. angina pectoris
5. myocardial infarction
6. inflammatory markers

4. Stem Cells

1. General definition of stem cells
2. The source of stem cells
3. Types of stem cells
4. Method of culturing stem cells
5. Clinical and therapeutic applications

6. Cell Cycle

1. General aspects about the events of cell cycle
2. Phases of cell cycle
3. Mitosis and meiosis
4. Cytokinesis
5. Factors affecting the cell cycle
6. Oncogenes

7. Revascularization

1. General aspects of blood supply to the myocardium
2. Inflammatory changes in the area of Ischemia
3. Molecular basis of revascularization
4. Growth factors
5. Factors affecting revascularization

8. Neurotransmitters

1. Definition
2. Discovery
3. Neurotransmitter Criteria
4. Lock & Key Model
5. Neuromodulators
6. Types of Neurotransmitters
7. Classes of Neurotransmission
8. Excitatory & Inhibitory NTs
9. NT Recovery & Degradation

 

Selected Topics in Physiology for MSc Candidates

(PHYSto-M2) 2nd Semester

3hours/week (3 credits)

1. Neonatal Physiology

1. Fetal & Neonatal brain
2. Fetal & Neonatal Cardiovascular
3. Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD)
4. Fetal lung and kidneys
5. Nutrition and growth
6. Preterm birth & perinatal steroids
7. Placenta
8. Fetal-maternal circadian rhythms
9. Inflammatory changes in the area of Ischemia

2. Physiology of Aging

1. Definition
2. Dividing the Lifespan
3. Theories of aging
4. Demographics of aging
5. Body Composition and Aging
6. Aging and Disease
7. Prevention and Reversal of Aging
8. Human Longevity
9. Delaying the Effects of Aging

3. Biological Rhythms

1. Chronobiology
2. Types of Rhythms
3. Controls of Rhythms
4. How many Hours are in a biological Clock?
5. Genes of  Biological Clocks
6. Circadian Rhythm
7. Where is the body's master clock?
8. Suprachiasmatic Nuclei “SCN”
9. Circadian Disruption
10. How do Clock Genes Influence Sleep?
11. What are the Health Implications of Clock Genes?
12. Jet Lag
13. Shift work (shift lag)

4. Thermoregulation

1. Heat production and loss
2. Body insulator system
3. Basic physics of heat loss
4. Sweating and its regulation by the autonomic NS
5. Body temperature regulation
6. Set-point concept for temperature control
7. Acclimatization to heat

5. Metabolic rate and Caloric Requirements

1. Main source of calories intake
2. General consideration of basal metabolic rate
3. Carbohydrate metabolism
4. Protein metabolism
5. Fat metabolism
6. Mechanisms control metabolic rate

6. Sport Physiology

1. Muscle metabolic system in exercise
2. Recovery of aerobic system after exercise
3. Oxygen dept
4. Effects of athletic training on muscle performance
5. Respiration in exercise
6. Cardiovascular system in exercise

7. Interstitial Cells of Cajal (ICC)

1. Types of ICC
2. Frequency of ICC Pacemaker Cells
3. Physiological Roles of ICC
4. Cajal-like Cells
5. Disorders of ICC
6. ICC Stem Cells
7. Pathophysiology of GI motility related to ICC

8. Glial Cells

1. Embryonic Development
2. Capacity to divide
3. Functions of Glial Cells
4. Glial cells Vs Neurons
5. Types and functions of glail cells

9. Enteric nervous system (ENS)

1. The Gut Brain
2. Myenteric (Auerbach) plexus
3. Submucous (Meissner) Plexus
4. Types of Neurons
5. Enteric connections
6. Clinical Conditions affecting ENS
7. Overview of the Second Brain
8. Gut has a mind of its own
9. Mind, Body and SOUL?
10. Gut feelings: Chakras
11. Psychonutrition???
12. How ENS mirrors CNS
13. Can the Gut's Brain learn?

Selected Topics in Physiology for PhD Candidates

(PHYSto-P1) 1st Semester

3hours/week (3 credits)

1. Physiology of Stress

1. Definition of stress
2. Effects associated with stress response
3. The general adaptation syndrome
4. Physical responses to stressors (Fight or Flight)
5. Emotional and behavioral responses
6. Management of stress

2. Apoptosis

1. General principles about programmed cell death
2. Mechanism of apoptosis at molecular level
3. cysteine proteases
4. DNA fragmentation, cytoplasmic and chromatin condensation

3. Coronary circulation and Coronary Heart Disease

1. Anatomic Considerations
2. Pressure Gradients & Flow in the Coronary Vessels
3. atherosclerotic plaque
4. angina pectoris
5. myocardial infarction
6. inflammatory markers

4. Stem Cells

1. General definition of stem cells
2. The source of stem cells
3. Types of stem cells
4. Method of culturing stem cells
5. Clinical and therapeutic applications

6. Cell Cycle

1. General aspects about the events of cell cycle
2. Phases of cell cycle
3. Mitosis and meiosis
4. Cytokinesis
5. Factors affecting the cell cycle
6. Oncogenes

7. Revascularization

1. General aspects of blood supply to the myocardium
2. Inflammatory changes in the area of Ischemia
3. Molecular basis of revascularization
4. Growth factors
5. Factors affecting revascularization

8. Neurotransmitters

1. Definition
2. Discovery
3. Neurotransmitter Criteria
4. Lock & Key Model
5. Neuromodulators
6. Types of Neurotransmitters
7. Classes of Neurotransmission
8. Excitatory & Inhibitory NTs
9. NT Recovery & Degradation

 

Selected Topics in Physiology for PhD Candidates

(PHYSto-P2) 2nd Semester

3hours/week (3 credits)

1. Neonatal Physiology

1. Fetal & Neonatal brain
2. Fetal & Neonatal Cardiovascular
3. Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD)
4. Fetal lung and kidneys
5. Nutrition and growth
6. Preterm birth & perinatal steroids
7. Placenta
8. Fetal-maternal circadian rhythms
9. Inflammatory changes in the area of Ischemia

2. Physiology of Aging

1. Definition
2. Dividing the Lifespan
3. Theories of aging
4. Demographics of aging
5. Body Composition and Aging
6. Aging and Disease
7. Prevention and Reversal of Aging
8. Human Longevity
9. Delaying the Effects of Aging

3. Biological Rhythms

1. Chronobiology
2. Types of Rhythms
3. Controls of Rhythms
4. How many Hours are in a biological Clock?
5. Genes of  Biological Clocks
6. Circadian Rhythm
7. Where is the body's master clock?
8. Suprachiasmatic Nuclei “SCN”
9. Circadian Disruption
10. How do Clock Genes Influence Sleep?
11. What are the Health Implications of Clock Genes?
12. Jet Lag
13. Shift work (shift lag)

4. Thermoregulation

1. Heat production and loss
2. Body insulator system
3. Basic physics of heat loss
4. Sweating and its regulation by the autonomic NS
5. Body temperature regulation
6. Set-point concept for temperature control
7. Acclimatization to heat

5. Metabolic rate and Caloric Requirements

1. Main source of calories intake
2. General consideration of basal metabolic rate
3. Carbohydrate metabolism
4. Protein metabolism
5. Fat metabolism
6. Mechanisms control metabolic rate

6. Sport Physiology

1. Muscle metabolic system in exercise
2. Recovery of aerobic system after exercise
3. Oxygen dept
4. Effects of athletic training on muscle performance
5. Respiration in exercise
6. Cardiovascular system in exercise

7. Interstitial Cells of Cajal (ICC)

1. Types of ICC
2. Frequency of ICC Pacemaker Cells
3. Physiological Roles of ICC
4. Cajal-like Cells
5. Disorders of ICC
6. ICC Stem Cells
7. Pathophysiology of GI motility related to ICC

8. Glial Cells

1. Embryonic Development
2. Capacity to divide
3. Functions of Glial Cells
4. Glial cells Vs Neurons
5. Types and functions of glail cells

9. Enteric nervous system (ENS)

1. The Gut Brain
2. Myenteric (Auerbach) plexus
3. Submucous (Meissner) Plexus
4. Types of Neurons
5. Enteric connections
6. Clinical Conditions affecting ENS
7. Overview of the Second Brain
8. Gut has a mind of its own
9. Mind, Body and SOUL?
10. Gut feelings: Chakras
11. Psychonutrition???
12. How ENS mirrors CNS
13. Can the Gut's Brain learn?

Pathophysiology Curriculum for PhD Candidates
(PHYPph-P1) 1st Semester
3hours/week (3 credits)

1. Cell and Tissue Injury

1. Chemicals and toxins
2. Response to Cell Injury (reversible & irreversible)
3. Types of cell injury
4. Cell death
5. Different Types of Cell Death
6. Necrosis
7. Cellular Adaptations
8. Extraskeletal Calcifications
9. Tissue Vulnerability to Injury

2. Healing

1. Regeneration
2. Repair
3. Complication of Healing

3. Inflammation

1. Acute Inflammation
2. Classic Signs and Symptoms of Acute Inflammation
3. Components of Acute Inflammation
4. Cell derived mediators
5. Types of Acute Inflammation
6. Chronic inflammation
7. Chronic inflammation.
8. Types of Chronic inflammation.

4. Shock

1. Types of Shock
2. Circulatory Shock
3. Hypovolemic Shock
4. Obstructive Shock
5. Distributive Shock
6. Neurogenic Shock
7. Anaphylactic Shock
8. Septic Shock
9. Cardiogenic Shock.
10. Endocrine Shock
11. Complications of shock

5. Tumors

1. Tumor Behavior
2. Distant Metastases
3. Tumor Metastasis
4. Metastasis by Lymph
5. Metastasis by Blood
6. Metastasis by Implantation
7. Tumor Effects.

 

6. Hemostasis

1. Disturbance of Hemostasis
2. Disorders of Hemostasis
3. Bleeding
4. Classification of bleeding
5. Thrombosis
6. Types of Thrombi
7. Classification of Thrombosis
8. Factors and Causes of Thrombosis
9. Sequelae of Thrombosis
10. Embolism
11. Thromboembolism

 

7. Alterations in Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Balance

1. Regulation of Sodium Balance
2. Regulation of Water Balance
3. Volume excess & Depletion
4. Potassium Balance
5. Calcium Balance
6. Magnesium Balance
7. Acid-Base Balance
8. bicarbonate buffer system
9. phosphate buffer system
10. ammonia buffer system
11. Laboratory Tests
12. Metabolic Versus Respiratory Acid-Base Disorders
13. Primary Vs Compensatory Mechanisms

8. Alterations in Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid, and Adrenal Function

1. General Aspects of Altered Endocrine Function
2. Pituitary and Growth Hormone Disorders
3. Thyroid Disorders
4. Parathyroid Hormone Disorders
5. Disorders of Adrenal Cortical Function

9. Diabetes Mellitus

1. General Aspects of Altered Endocrine Function
2. Alteration in carbohydrates metabolism.
3. Alteration in fat and protein metabolism.
4. Effect on the peripheral nervous system
5. The role of stem cells culture in the therapy

10. Alterations in Renal Function

1. Congenital and Hereditary Disorders of the Kidney
2. Obstructive Disorders
3. Urinary Tract Infections
4. Disorders of Glomerular Function
5. Tubulointerstitial Disorders
6. Neoplasms

Pathophysiology Curriculum for PhD Candidates

(PHYPph-P2) 2nd Semester
3hours/week (3 credits)

1. Renal Failure and Alterations in Urine Elimination

1. Acute Renal Failure
2. Chronic Renal Failure
3. Renal Failure in Children and Elderly Persons
4. Control of Urine Elimination
5. Alterations in Bladder Function
6. Cancer of the Bladder

2. Increased intracranial pressure

1. General Aspects of Altered CSF circulation
2. Alteration of brain function
3. Cerebrovascular Disease
4. Infections and Neoplasms
5. Seizure Disorders
6. Dementias

3. Seizure Disorders

1. Pathophysiology of seizure disorders
2. Etiology of seizures
3. EEG changes and patterns
4. Resent methods for therapy

4. Alterations in Neuromuscular Function

1. Skeletal Muscle and Peripheral Nerve Disorders
2. Basal Ganglia and Cerebellum Disorders
3. Upper and Lower Motor-neuron Disorders
4. Spinal Cord Injury

5. Heart Failure and Circulatory Shock

1. Heart Failure
2. Circulatory Failure (Shock)
3. Heart Failure in Children and the Elderly

6. Alterations in Respiratory Function: Infectious Disorders and Neoplasia

1. Respiratory Tract Infections
2. Cancer of the Lung
3. Respiratory Disorders in Infants and Children

7. Alterations in Respiratory Function: Disorders of Gas Exchange

1. Disorders of Lung Inflation
2. Obstructive Airway Disorders
3. Interstitial Lung Diseases
4. Pulmonary Vascular Disorders
5. Respiratory Failure

8. Alterations in Gastrointestinal Function

1. Disorders of the Esophagus
2. Disorders of the Stomach
3. Disorders of the Small and Large Intestines
4. Anorexia, Nausea, and Vomiting

9. Alterations in the Male and Female Reproductive Systems

1. Disorders of the Penis, the Scrotum and Testes, and the Prostate
2. Disorders in Childhood and Aging Changes
3. Disorders of the Female Reproductive Organs
4. Menstrual Disorders
5. Disorders of the Breast
6. Infections of the External Genitalia
7. Vaginal Infections
8. Vaginal-Urogenital-Systemic Infections